philae temple

(Translation of the above) Thoth speaks after he looks upon his enemies on the ground. He says, “Gods in heaven let you hearts rejoice, and let your hearts rejoice gods who are in the earth. Horus, the Youthful One, comes in peace and on his journey he has displayed deeds of great might, which he has performed according to the Book of Slaying the Hippopotamus”

Sakkara Serapeum inauguration, The full report and exclusive pictures

 A large crowd was at Sakkara necropolis on Thursday 20^th of September for the international press conference which was called for by Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim, Minister State of Antiquities to witness the inauguration of the Serapeum and the re-opening of two old kingdom tombs after restoration (Petahotep and Mereruka).

Dr. Ibrahim gave a rather detailed speech on the history of the Serapeum in Arabic explaining what the Serapeum is, to begin with, followed by a rather short message in English (you can watch the full English speech in the video below)

It is catacombs of the sacred Apis-bulls (1500-30BC), from the 18^th Dynasty until the Greco-Roman period.

In August 1850, Auguste Mariette was sent on a scientific mission to Egypt to document and list Coptic manuscripts in Alexandria and at some stage he had to come to Cairo to get permission from the Patriarch of the Coptic Church. After seeing few statues of Sphinxes in different aristocrats houses and asked about where it came from, the repeated answer “ Sakkara” made me decided to take an exploration trip on which he found his first discovery was an avenue of human-headed sphinxes, which led him to the entrance of the Serapeum.

Mariette’s exploration of the Serapeum and surroundings lasted four years. Over the course of this period, four successive campaigns were carried out.

The first lasted from the 19^th of November 1851, to the 15^th of February 1852 and allowed for the clearing of the “Greater Tunnels”; which contained the remains of the sacred Apis bulls slaughtered between the 52^nd year of Pasmmetic I’s rule and the end of the Greco-Roman period.

The second campaign, which took place from the 15^th of February to the 15^th of March 1852, allowed for the exploration of the “Lesser Tunnels”; where the Apis bulls after the 30^th year of Ramses II’s reign, up to the 21^st year of Pasmmetic I were buried.

During the third campaign, (15^th March till 15^th of September 1852) Mariette discovered the isolated tombs of the Apis bulls from the end of the 18^th Dynasty to those from the beginning of the 19^th Dynasty.

The fourth and last season, (15^th of September 1852 till 24^th of September 1852) Mariette extended his investigations to study the materials used to construct the monuments he excavated as well as their surroundings.

The Serapeum main tunnel is 150 meters long, 3 meters wide and an average height of 5 meters.

There are 24 sarcophagus of either Gray-pink granite or basalt, only 3 of them bares hieroglyphic inscriptions on them. 

The Miniter, Dr. Ibrahim said “This inauguration of the Serapeum is a start for a series of forthcoming inaugurations of different sites across Egypt including tombs in Giza and the Hibis temple in the New Valley. As we are keen to open those sites before the tourism season in Egypt to offer new tourist attractions and tell the whole world that Egypt is safe and exerts all efforts to preserve its archaeological heritage.”

(Left to right) Dr. Hassan Fahmi,Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim and Dr.Ali Abd Elrahman

After Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim speech, Dr. Hassan Fahmi Emam, engineering Professor at Cairo University, who is the project consultant talked about the early stages of the project since 1985 when the threat of collapsing of the Serapeum was recognised and a committee was formed to discuss the best way to deal with the situation amongst was the current MSA Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim. The frustration and passion was so clear during Dr. Hassan talk about the project and the debate that took years between the archaeologists and engineers on how to deal with the situation and whether or not to use steel scaffolding and bars to support the ceiling of the tomb. According to Dr. Hassan Fahim, it took three times to get back to UNESCO experts for advice which they supported the engineers’ opinion to use to steel scaffolding and the actual work started in 2001 and was finished in December 2010 at a cost of 12 and half million pounds but the tomb was still closed because of the political situation in Egypt.   

Then all the international media representatives were invited to visit the Serapeum and the two re-opened tombs.

Dr. Hassan Fahmi explaining how the work was done

Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim interviewed by CNN, The first stone building in recorded history i the background

Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim talks to the Editor of Luxor Times about the new openings will happen soon in Luxor and across Egypt

Tomb of Ptahotep and his son Akhethotep. High officials of the second half of 5^th Dynasty.

According to Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim during his speech “It is considered one of the most beautiful tombs in Sakkara, if not the most beautiful one.”

It was discovered by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette in the 1850s and documented by Norman de Garis in 1898.

After more than 4400 years, the architecture of the tomb is almost completely treated and the coulours of its beautifully decorated interior are well preserved. The decoration of the tom was not all finished as seen in the room just after the entrance.

Ptahotep restoration work included:

- Mechanical cleaning for the birds’ crap on the false door at the front courtyard.

- Cleaning work of the tomb façade using the right chemicals.

- Strengthen the lime stones.

- Removing salts of the stones.

- Strengthen and confirming the faded colours in the tomb.

- Adjusting the ventilation and lights in the tomb.

- Adjusting the windows in the tomb by filling the holes around them.

The entrance to Ptahotep tomb. Luxor Times team was the first to get in the tomb

Tomb of Mereruka, Vizier of King Teti of the 6^th Dynasty (ca. 2330 B.C)

The tomb of Mereruka is one of the largest and most complete of all the non-royal tombs in Sakkara. It was built at the beginning of the 6^th Dynasty. According to the Greek sources from the 3^rd century B.C, he lived in troubled times, during which King Teti was assassinated by his bodyguard. The sudden vacant place of the ruler is believed to have been temporarily occupied by Mereruka, who was married to the King’s daughter, Princess Seshseshet, until a legitimate royal succession was established.

The tomb was discovered by the French scholar Jaques de Morgan in 1893. The tomb of Mereruka includes the burial places of his wife Seshseshet and their son Meryteti. Though the coulours of the tomb have vanished, the burial room of Mereruka is still considered one of the most beautifully decorated funeral chambers of a high official at Sakkara.

The tomb contains vibrant and well preserved decoration, with a rich variety of daily scenes; scenes of agriculture, fishing, hunting, jewellery making and the rendering of justice and punishment among others.

Mereruka restoration work included:

- Mechanical cleaning of the dust.

- Chemical cleaning of the walls especially caused through touching the walls especially at the entrance.

- Strengthen and confirming the faded colours on some walls.

- Completing some parts of the flooring using limestone with plaster.

- Installing temperature and humidity check devices and to interfere if necessary using the suitable tools such as humidity sucking devices.  

- Improving the ventilation inside the tomb by using the natural ventilation from the windows.

- Adjusting the lighting system to match the tomb needs.

Temple of Montu - ElTod Village

The Temple of Montu at Tod in Egypt 

Tod, ancient Djerty, and during the Graeco-Roman Period, Tuphium, is a small village built around an ancient mound (Kom) on the eastern bank of the Nile about 20 kilometers south of Luxor (ancient Thebes). It sits just across the Nile from Armant (ancient Hermonthis). Jean-Francois Champollion was one of the first investigators of the ancient ruins. He visited what was left of a high crypt that emerged from the temple that remained buried beneath the village.

Then, in 1934, Fernand Bisson de la Roque cleared the ruins of the first two halls, both of which could be dated to the Ptolemaic period. The first was a hypostyle hall, and the other was dominated by the high crypt. At the back of the temple on the far end were revealed traces of a church, built directly on the limestone paving of the pharaonic sanctuary. Made of sandstone, the eaves of Ptolemaic date surround an ancient limestone wall and are linked to this paving. They carry a lengthy historical inscription from the Middle Kingdom King, Senusret I, and were part of an earlier temple of that king.

The columned court (hypostyle hall), which was probably begun during the reign of Ptolemy VIII, had various chambers including a hidden treasury room above the chapel on the south side.
 
Below the paving slaps were unearthed blocks from previous construction phases of the temple dating back to the very early Middle Kingdom kings, Montuhotep II and III, dating to the 11th Dynasty and to Amenemhet I who is credited with founding the 12th Dynasty. However, some blocks were even discovered that date back to the 5th Dynasty reign of Userkaf. These blocks and some of the Middle Kingdom material can be seen in the small open magazine at the site.

In the foundation sand of the Middle Kingdom structure, beneath a narrowed eave, were found four copper chests in the name of King Amenemhet II. Known as the "Tod Treasure", these were filled with lapis lazuli, silver and some gold objects. These items are now in the Egyptian Antiquity Museum in Cairo, and also in the Louvre in Paris. The lapis lazuli was all either raw, uncut pieces, fragments of beads or cylinder seals from various origins in the Near East, and dating back to the third and the beginning of the second millennium BC. The silver was made up of flattened ingots, ingot chains and coiled cups. The origins of these remain disputed among archaeologists, but the most consistent hypotheses is that they were of Minoan or Syrian creation, for the most part, representing foreign tribute. Some items came as far a field as Afghanistan lapis lazuli).

Somewhat above the "Tod Treasure" was also found a rather common and unremarkable find of Saite (26th Dynasty) bronze figures of Osiris.

Between 1981 and 1991, the site was again excavated, this time by Musee du Louvre focusing on the temple's surroundings. This work unearthed a terrace built at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. There, the excavators discovered private chapels that survived until the New Kingdom. There was no western entrance to the temple until the dromos (an avenue or entranceway) was created in the third century BC, probably by Ptolemy IV, who probably also built the two Ptolemaic halls as replacements for those dating back to the time of Tuthmosis III. The dromos was never finished and the platform overlooking the pier was redesigned in the second or first century BC to include a monumental door, which was also never completed. Here, there are also the remains of an avenue of sphinxes.
Prior to the Ptolemaic period, the temple was accessed only from the north, as indicated by the placement of a wayside park chapel begun by Tuthmosis III, and completed by Amenhotep II. Talatats, which were standard sized blocks used in construction during the reign of Amenhotep IV, were most likely brought from Karnak, and were possibly used to complete the upper sections of the temple at the end of the Ptolemaic period, or even as late as the Roman Period. Decorations are mostly attributed to Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II and Ptolemy XII, though the most recent reliefs are dated to the Roman Period during the reign of Antonius Pius.
The Temple ::


The Middle Kingdom temple complex was mostly dedicated to the cult of the important Egyptian god, Montu, who has a number of other temples in this region dedicated to him. The surviving monuments today are of New Kingdom and later date. They include the partially preserved barque shrine of Montu built by Tuthmosis III and restored by Amenhotep II, Seti I, Amenmesse, and Ramesses III and IV. It stands before the chambers built during the Ptolemaic period. Only the front wall of Senusret I's structure remains, though it has good examples of later usurpation and reworking.

A Roman kiosk was located near the Ptolemaic temple. North of the two Ptolemaic halls there was a lake dug out, either while or shortly after the halls were built. To the south, another kom indicates different stages of urban growth, and not of some other temple.

 

wadi elhammat

Wadi Hammamat is one of a great number of dry river beds that wind through the rugged mountains of Egypt’s Eastern Desert and the modern road that runs through it connects Qift (Greek Coptos) to the port of Qusieir on the Red Sea. The route was used for millennia as a trade route from the Coast to the Nile, but the area was also famed for its quarries and gold mines. Scores of ancient ruins line the route; remains of watchtowers, forts, wells and mines from various periods show much evidence of ancient quarrying and mining activity.  The wadi is perhaps best known however, for its hundreds of hieroglyphic and hieratic rock inscriptions which record the activities of expeditions sent by many kings to obtain the precious resources of bekhen-stone which were used for small-scale building projects, sarcophagi, statues and vessels during the Pharaonic Period.

Marsa Alam has lots of popular tourist attractions that are a must visit, once you're out of the deliciously cool sea. Make time for them along with diving and snorkeling and other water activities when you visit Marsa Alam. A fascinating tourist attraction of Marsa Alam is the ancient Wadi Hammamat which is sure to keep you riveted for hours.
Wadi Hammamat lies somewhere in the middle between Quesir and Qena. This road in the Nile trough is supposed to be the shortest between the Nile River and the Red Sea.
You'll love the numerous rock inscriptions dating back to the distant past all carved on the walls of the wadi. The walls are also full of intricate Egyptian hieroglyphics.There are even pictures here in relief showing Egyptian reed boats which are considered to go as far back as 4000 BC.
Besides these rock carvings, there's so much to explore along Wadi Hammamat in Marsa Alam! All along the wadi, you can see ruins of old time fortresses, watchtowers and even wells, mines and quarries.
In the ancient timesWadi Hammamat was part of the the world's most famous mining complex. Iron as well as various types of granites used to be mined from the quarries along Wadi Hammamat.
Among the many gold mines in exotic Egypt, Wadi Hammamat was one of the most famous. Bir Umm Fawakhir which is a part of the Wadi Hammamat as well as the entire stretch of the Wadi Hammamat yielded the yellow metal right up to the end of the 20th century.
But above all, it was the Bekheney stone mined from these quarries that made Wadi Hammamat a legend. This beautiful green decorative rock was considered sacred and used in making statues, bowls and sarcophagi right up to the Roman period in Egypt. The famed Bekheney stone was even used by the ancient Egyptian royalty inside their pyramids.
So come and be fascinated by the mysteries of the past at Wadi Hammamat in Marsa Alam!
 

There is evidence in the area of prehistoric man, desert dwellers and nomads who left crude petroglyphs bruised into the rocks in the form of curved reed boats, hunters and long-gone animals, including elephants and ostriches, suggesting that the desert was at that time a more hospitable place. This route through the mountains of the Eastern Desert was taken by travellers and expeditions from the Old Kingdom onwards, right through to the Romans who exploited the quarries and gold mines the most, and who built stone watchtowers on the tops of the hills to guard the road and the wells. Wadi Hammamat contains a variety of sandstone, greywacke and schist-type rocks which were all known as Bekhen-stone in ancient times. The colours of the rocks vary from a very dark basalt-like stone, through reds, pinks and greens and although this stone was usually too flawed for building large monuments it was highly prized for palettes, statues, sarcophagi and smaller shrines.

The Turin Papyrus mining map, thought to have been found by Drovetti at Deir el-Medina and now reconstructed in the Museo Egizio in Turin, is the oldest topographical and geological map known from Egypt. It was drawn by a scribe named Amennakhte, son of Ipuy, who was commissioned to make the map during an expedition of Rameses IV, the king who sent one of the largest recorded quarrying expeditions to the Wadi Hammamat. The map shows part of the route through the wadi and depicts identifying features, such as hills, together with distances between quarries and mines. The use of different colours and textures for the different features with a descriptive legend was very innovative.

The bekhen quarry on the northern side of the road still contains remains of workmens huts built from the dark schist stone and nestled in the lee of the cliff. Quarry marks can be seen everywhere and halfway up the cliff there is an abandoned sarcophagus which perhaps split or fractured during quarrying.  On the southern side of the road the cliffs are littered with inscriptions left by expedition members, many of which can be dated to the year of the reigning pharaoh, providing invaluable historical records of the activities of a long line of kings.

One of the earliest pieces of evidence of the use or exploitation of the Wadi Hammamat may be a graffito containing a serekh of the Early Dynastic King Narmer, which is inscribed on a rock in the Wadi el-Qash, an offshoot of the Wadi Hammamat. The Wadi Hammamat was known to have been used during Dynasty VI and probably earlier, as a route to the Red Sea and from there to the East African coast and the Land of Punt. Texts that can be dated with accuracy point to possibly several expeditions sent by Pepi I (who is represented in around 80 inscriptions) to extract blocks of bekhen-stone for temple statuary. An undated graffito also shows the presence of an expedition of Merenre, the last Old Kingdom pharaoh to be featured here. Quarrying and military activities account for the majority of inscriptions from the Old Kingdom and the names of other kings briefly mentioned in graffiti include Khufu, Khafre, Djedefre, Menkaure, Sahure and Unas. Also thought to date from the Old Kingdom is a curious text of an official Zaty, named as ‘King’s Son’ and ‘General’ in the reign of an unknown king Imhotep.
The First Intermediate Period was a time of upheaval in the whole of Egypt with a decline in the state’s economy and political structure, though there are a couple of small graffiti mentioning Merykare and Ity, Herakleopolitan rulers of Dynasty X.
It seems to be Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II of Dynasty XI who re-opened the Wadi Hammamat route and possibly sent quarrying expeditions there at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom and a short hieroglyphic graffito most probably dates to his rule. His son, Sankhkare Mentuhotep III sent a large expedition of 3000 men in Year 8 of his reign, attested by a text of his Chief Steward Henenu. The purpose was to establish a trade contact with Punt, but they may also have done some quarrying. In the final recorded Dynasty XI journey, Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV sent an even larger expedition in Year 2 of his reign, shown in four large rock-stelae. We are told by Vizier Amenemhat (probably the later Pharaoh Amenemhat I) how their mission was to quarry bekhen-stone for the King’s sarcophagus and how a gazelle gave birth on the block they had chosen, an auspicious omen which greatly encouraged the workforce of 10,000 men. Another of Vizier Amenemhat’s texts records the ‘wonder of rain’, a flash flood that produced a well of clear water.

 Most of the Middle Kingdom texts in the Wadi Hammamat are long and include dedications to the local god, Min of Coptos, his consort Isis and their son Horus, who are often depicted receiving offerings. A cartouche of the king is usually inscribed, along with the year of the reign and name of the expedition leader, often giving details of the mission. Dynasty XII begins with the Pharaoh Amenemhat I, who left a single undated rock-stela in the Wadi Hammamat. His son Senusret I sent missions there in reignal years 2, 26 and 38, the third of which was the largest ever to work in the wadi. A team of roughly 18,660 skilled and unskilled workers, including soldiers, hunters, brewers, bakers and of course the scribes, artisans and labourers, had the task of quarrying stone for 60 sphinxes and 150 statues. Two large rock-stelae date to this expedition and give names of personnel and even the rations that were issued. Later Middle Kingdom rulers attested here include Senusret II and III, each sending a single mission and Amenemhat III who sent at least four expeditions in years 2,3,19 and 20 of his reign.

First discovered in 1950 and thought to be an Old Kingdom text, but more likely dating to the Middle Kingdom, a brief, crudely-worked, but important graffito constitutes one of the earliest king-lists, written by a minor official which names Old Kingdom rulers Khufu, Djedefre and Khafre, written in cartouches. The author of this unusual inscription also includes the names of Princes Hordjedef and Bauefre in cartouches.

The chronology at the end of the Middle Kingdom into the Second Intermediate Period is difficult to ascertain, but the period is represented in the Wadi Hammamat by a stele of Sobekhotep IV Khaneferre, while there were possibly two or three graffito naming King Sobekemsaf I Sekhemre-wadjkhau.

There are surprisingly few texts from New Kingdom Pharaohs among the rock-inscriptions in Wadi Hammamat, perhaps because a more northerly route may also have been used to cross the Eastern Desert at this time. Names and titles have recently been found representing Ahmose I and Amenhotep II, but the two brief texts of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) found there are more interesting historically as they both mention a high priest of Amun who was sent to collect bekhen-stone. Presumably this was from the king’s early reign while the Theban priesthood were still in favour. Though the wadi was likely to have continued to be used during Dynasty XVIII, no evidence of other rulers have been found. In Dynasty XIX, Seti I usurped a relief of Amenhotep IV, showing the king kneeling with two vases before Amun-re and two more images of Seti I have been found offering Ma’at and flowers to Amun-re. Seti II is also represented in a relief and a stela by the Vizier Paraemheb in which the king is in the presence of Min, Horus and Isis.

While the long reign of Rameses II is represented by only one set of cartouches in Wadi Hammamat, the most prolific New Kingdom Pharaoh was undoubtedly Rameses IV Hekamaatre Setepenamun of Dynasty XX, whose inscriptions have been firmly dated to four missions during the first three years of his reign, describing expeditions sent to procure stone for his Theban monuments. Stelae inscribed by several priests and officials describe the expeditions of Rameses IV and there are many minor graffiti dating to the reign. A text of Turu, high priest of Montu, dates to Year 1 and depicts the king in the presence of many deities, while a stela dating to Year 2 mentions the extracting of bekhen-stone for the ‘Place of Eternity’. The largest mission was in Year 3, when Ramesesnakht, high priest of Amun, was sent with a large workforce to quarry stone for the ‘Place of Truth’ (the Theban necropolis), which he recorded on two stelae. This was the expedition that produced the Wadi Hammamat mining map.

The only Third Intermediate Period ruler to be mentioned here is the Theban High Priest Menkheperre of Dynasty XXI. This was another period of economic decline and political disruption in Egypt and expeditions were not documented again until Dynasty XXV and XXVI. A text by a quarryman, Psenuenkhons, is recorded from the time of the Divine Adoratrice Amenirdis I, Year 12 of King Shabaqo. Cartouches and graffiti relating to  Taharqa, Psamtek I, Necho II and Psamtek II have also been found.

Graffiti dating to the First Persian Period occupation are particularly numerous and seem to represent a new level of activity in the Wadi Hammamat. With the exception of Darius II, all of the major Persian kings are represented here. One very important graffito from this time was inscribed high on the sloping cliff-face by Khnemibre, ‘Superintendent of Works in Upper and Lower Egypt’, whose name is written in a double-plumed cartouche. Khnemibre was a Royal Architect who held office during the reigns of Amasis and Darius I. This inscription is written as a genealogy dating backwards from Khnemibre’s father, Ahmose-saneit, over 22 generations of Royal Architects to Rahotep, a Vizier of Rameses II. Khnemibre himself is depicted standing before the goddess Hathor and the text is dated Year 26 of Darius. David Rohl and other revisionists have used this inscription to illustrate their arguments for the shortening of the Third Intermediate Period which challenges the bases of the traditional Egyptian chronological framework.

The latest hieroglyphic inscriptions in the Wadi Hammamat date to the reign of Nectanebo II of the Dynasty XXX but there are also many demotic or Greek texts from the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods. The Romans brought renewed interest in the wadi, especially as a trading route, building watchtowers and signal posts, forts and a fortified well at Bir Hammamat. In the bekhen-stone quarries, a temple containing several side-chambers has been dated to the time of Tiberius by an inscribed naos. Graffiti in the wadi record activity under Emperors Augustus, Nero, Titus, Domitian, Antoninus and Maximinus.

Bir Hammamat was a Roman fort and major watering station for travellers through the wadi. The stone walls can still be seen, built to protect the well, 34m deep, which had a winding staircase to the bottom. This is a great feat of Roman engineering and impresses on the visitor the vital importance of water in this arid landscape.
The first European descriptions of the Wadi Hammamat were from the Scottish traveller James Bruce in 1769, though he made no mention of the inscriptions. Sir John Gardner Wilkinson and Lepsius visited the wadi during the 19th century and the Russian Egyptologist Vladimir Golenishchev led the first modern study of the inscriptions in 1884-1885 but it was not until the early part of the 20th century that more interest was shown in the site by Arthur Weigall in 1909. In 1912 a thorough survey was undertaken and published by Couyat and Motet. In the 1930s the German pioneer Hans Winkler thoroughly explored the area by camel before world war II interrupted his work of recording the desert boats, which was never completed before his death. Wendorf and Schild explored the Eastern Desert regions, publishing their results in 1980. Susan and Donald Redford, Gerlad Fuchs, David Rohl who conducted the Eastern Desert Survey and Mike and Maggie Morrow who published RATS (Rock Art Topographical Survey) are just some of the latter-day explorers of Wadi Hammamat.
How to get there
The distance between Qift and Quseir is 180km and the ancient road beginning at the Roman watering station at Laghieta is about 50km from the turnoff south of Qift. After 83km, there is a narrow defile just as the road begins to pass between the higher mountains and where the scenery gets more spectacular with every kilometre. A little way past an ancient well known as Bir Hammamat to the northern side of the road, the road narrows into a rocky gorge between high, dark, jagged mountains towards Bir Umm Fawakir and this is where the concentration of a large number of  rock inscriptions can be found. There is a  small gafir’s hut opposite the inscriptions. At the entrance to Wadi Fawakir (108km) there is a coffee shop where travellers can stop for refreshments. A special permit is now required from the SCA to stop at the site of the graffiti and all photography is banned.


 This site is home to 200 hieroglyphic tablets that adorn the cliffs, in addition to hundreds of magnificent rock inscriptions, some of which date back to 4000 BC. It is renowned for the production of the Bekheni stone, a stunning green ornamental rock, which is considered sacred. The stone was actively quarried from Pharaonic until Roman times to make bowls, statues and sarcophagi, many of which have been found in the Pyramids, graves and temples of those periods.

	Hammamat Inscriptions Old Kingdom The inscription of the chief architect of Pepi I
	Year after //// //// //// Royal commission which the chief of all works of the king, sole companion, master-builder of the king, attached to the Double House, Merire-meriptah-onekh, carried out. Overseer of the administration of the divine offering, attached to the Double House, first under the king, judge, inferior scribe, Sesi. Scribe of the king's records, Khenu. Judge attached to Nekhen, Khui. Treasurer of the god, Ihu. Treasurer of the god Ikhi. Reign of Pepi I J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 299 First Intermediate Period		Nekhen: Hierakonpolis in the 3rd nome of Upper Egypt   The titles seem not necessarily to have had any bearing on the role the officials performed. If a master-builder visited a quarry he probably did so in order to choose the rock he wanted for his building. The roles of a judge or a treasurer of the god are less clear. A ship captain may have organized the transportation of the quarried rock, both overland where the efforts of men pulling at ropes had to be coordinated and on the water.
	Year of the first occurrence (of the numbering), fourth month of the first season, day 2. //// Ihy; Khufu; commander of the army //// Yakhetirni. Came the ship captain, Ipi, and Nekuptah to do the work on the pyramid (called): "Fame-of-Ity"; together with 200 soldiers and 200 workmen, making 200. Reign of Ity J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 387   The inscription of Kenofer		first occurrence (of the numbering): a nation-wide cattle count was held annually or bi-annually   the ship captain, Ipy: Ipy was probably responsible for transport, though ancient Egyptian leaders had to be prepared to tackle any task.   Ity: Nebkaure, 21st century BCE   200 soldiers and 200 workmen, making 200: Scribal mistakes of this kind occurred not infrequently.
	Commission which the eldest king's son, the treasurer of the god, commander of the army, Zaty, called Kenofer, executed. I was at the front of the people in the day of battle, I controlled the going in the day of attack, by my counsel. I was exalted above multitudes, I made this work of Imhotep with 1000 men of the palace, 100 quarrymen, 1200 [soldiers] and 50 [////]. His majesty sent this numerous troop from the court. I made this work while [////] in every [////], while his majesty gave 50 oxen and 200 asses every day. Palace-overseer, Intef. Scribe of the marine, Mereri. Reign of Imhotep J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 389f Middle Kingdom The inscription of Henu		king's son: Royal princes were often put at the head of expeditions, military or economic   soldiers: draftees.
	Year 8, first month of the third season (ninth month), day 3; his real favorite servant, who does all that he praises every day, wearer of the royal seal, [sole] com[panion], //// overseer of that which is and that which is not, overseer of the temples, overseer of the granary and White House, overseer of horn and hoof, chief of the six courts of justice, high-voiced in proclaiming the name of the king on the day of his warding off [////] who judges the prisoner according to his deserts //////////////////// (omitted lines containing titles) Satisfying the heart of the king as Keeper of the Door of the South; over the administration of the nomes of the South, chief treasurer ////////////. who quells the Haunebu, to whom the Two Lands come bowing down, to whom every office reports; wearer of the royal seal, sole companion, the steward, Henu says:     [My lord, life prosperity], health! sent me to dispatch a ship to Punt to bring for him fresh myrrh from the sheiks over the Red Land, by reason of the fear of him in the highlands. Then I went forth from Coptos upon the road, which his majesty commanded me. There was with me an army of the South from //// of the Oxyrhyncus nome, the beginning thereof as far as Gebelen; the end thereof as far as [////], every office of the king's house, those who were in town and field, united, came after me. The army [////] cleared the way before, overthrowing those hostile toward the king, the hunters and the children of the highlands were posted as the protection of my limbs. Every official body of his majesty was placed under my authority. They reported messengers to me, as one alone commanding, to whom many hearken.     I went forth with an army of 3,000 men. I made the road a river, and the Red Land (desert) a stretch of field, for I gave a leathern bottle, a carrying pole, 2 jars of water and 20 loaves to each one among them every day. The asses were laden with sandals [//// //// //// ////].     Now, I made 12 wells in the bush, and two wells in Idehet, 20 square cubits in one, and 31 [square] cubits in the other. I made another in Iheteb, 20 by 20 cubits on each side [//// //// //// ////].     Then I reached the [Red] Sea; then I made this ship, and I dispatched it with everything, when I had made for it a great oblation of cattle, bulls and ibexes.     Now, after my return from the (Red) Sea, I executed the command of his majesty, and I brought for him all the gifts, which I had found in the region of God's Land. I returned through the [valley] of Hammamat, I brought for him august blocks for statues belonging to the temple. Never was brought down the like thereof for the king's court; never was done the like of this by any king's confidant sent out since the time of the god. I did this for the majesty of my lord because he so much loved me ////////////////////////.. Reign of Mentuhotep II J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 428f   The inscriptions of Amenemhet		Henu: also Hennu, Henenu etc.   the Door of the South: Elephantine   dispatch a ship to Punt: In the absence of a canal connecting the Nile with the Red Sea via the Bitter Lakes, the Wadi Hammamat route of less than 200 km was the shortest way to reach the Red Sea coast.   Red Land: The desert regions, as opposed to the fertile Black Land   Oxyrhyncus nome: 19th nome of Upper Egypt   Gebelen: Per-hathor in the 4th nome of Upper Egypt   overthrowing those hostile toward the king: The Egyptian control over the desert regions was often tenuous and had to be reasserted by military means.   2 jars of water and 20 loaves: No supplies of fresh vegetables are mentioned. Such a diet over a prolonged period would result in the occurrence of deficiency diseases such as scurvy, known to the ancient Egyptians and described in the Ebers Papyrus. Such effects would probably have been rare as most quarrying expeditions were of short duration and mining in desert regions often seasonal, according to the present documents generally occurring during the first season or late in the third. Under Khufu, when building operations went on for years seemingly uninterrupted, the supply of vegetables, radishes and onions and leeks according to Herodotus, is specifically mentioned.   sandals: The Egyptians were generally barefoot, but in the rocky wadis of the Eastern desert sandals were a necessity.   20 by 20 cubits: About ten by ten metres. Cisterns and wells had stairs leading down to the water level.   leathern bottle: Leather bottles and animal skins, being much lighter than clay pots, were often employed for transporting water in desert regions. The most famous instance of such use of animal skins was during the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses.   God's Land: Here God's Land refers to a region south of Egypt, at other times it designates a land somewhere in western Asia.   blocks for statues: The Hammamat region was important for its mines and quarries as well as for its passage to the Red Sea.
	Year 2, second month of the first season, day 15. Royal commission, executed by the hereditary prince, count, governor of the city, chief judge, favorite of the king, chief of works, distinguished in his office, great in his rank, with advanced place in the house of his lord, commanding the official body, chief of the six courts of justice, judging the people and the inhabitants, and hearing [causes], to whom the great come bowing down, and the whole land, prone upon the belly, whose offices his lord advanced; his favorite as keeper of the Door of the South; conducting for him millions of the inhabitants to do for him the desire of his heart toward his monuments, enduring on earth; magnate of the King of Upper Egypt, great one of the King of Lower Egypt, conductor of the palace, [//// ////] in stretching the measuring-cord; judging without partiality, governor of the whole South, to whom is reported that which is and that which is not; conducting the administration of the Lord of the Two Lands; [zealous] of heart upon a royal commission; commander of those that command, conductor of overseers; the vizier of the king, at his audiences, Amenemhet, says:		chief of the six courts of justice: There was no separation between judicial and executive offices (cf. Law and Order)   stretching the measuring-cord: The initial, mostly symbolic, act of construction (cf. Building).

My lord, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nibtowere, living forever, sent me as one sending, in whom are divine members; to establish his monument in this land, He chose me before his city, I was preferred before his court.     Now, his majesty commanded that there go forth to this august highland an army with me, men of the choicest of the whole land: miners, artificers, quarrymen, artists, draftsmen, stonecutters, gold[workers], treasurers of Pharaoh, of every department of the White House, and every office of the king's house, united behind me. I made the highlands a river, and the upper valleys a water-way.     I brought for him a sarcophagus, an eternal memorial, an everlasting reminder. Never descended its like in this highland since the time of the god. My soldiers descended without loss; not a man perished, not a troop was missing, not an ass died, not a workman was enfeebled. It happened for the majesty of my lord as a distinction, which Min wrought for him because he so much loved him, that his ka might endure upon the great throne in the kingdom of the two regions of Horus. [He made (it) as something greater than it.] I am his favorite servant, who does all that he praises every day. Reign of Mentuhotep IV J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 445ff

Nibtowere: Mentuhotep IV (c. 1998-1991 BCE)   preferred before his court: Royal family members and other courtiers were often chosen for such missions.   miners, artificers, quarrymen ////////.: According to this list most of the work on the sarcophagus seems to have been done in situ.   I made the highlands a river: i.e. there was water everywhere   My soldiers descended without loss: Successful commanders often prided themselves for not losing any subordinates.

King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Nibtowere, who liveth forever, born of the king's mother, Imi, second month of the first season, day 23.     One set to work in this mountain on the [lid] block of the sarcophagus. The wonder was repeated, rain was made, the forms of the god appeared, his fame was shown to men, the highland was made a lake, the water went to the margin of the stone, a well was found in the midst of the valley, 10 cubits by 10 cubits on its every side, filled with fresh water, to its edge, undefiled, kept pure and cleansed from gazelles, concealed from Troglodyte barbarians. Soldiers of old, and kings who lived aforetime, went out and returned by its side, no eye had seen it, the face of man had not fallen upon it, (but) to his majesty himself it was revealed. ////////////. Those who were in Egypt heard it, the people who were in Egypt, South and Northland, they bowed their heads to the ground, they praised the goodness of his majesty forever and ever. Reign of Mentuhotep IV Day 28. The lid of this sarcophagus descended, being a block 4 cubits, by 8 cubits, by 2 cubits on coming forth from the work. Cattle were slaughtered, goats were slain, incense was put on the fire. Behold, an army of 3,000 sailors of the nomes of the Northland followed it in safety to Egypt. Reign of Mentuhotep IV J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 453f The tablet of Senekh     4 cubits, by 8 cubits, by 2 cubits: 2 metres by 4 metres by 1 metre   incense was put on the fire: any such undertaking was under the auspices of some god, e.g. Hathor was often worshipped by those involved in mining.     Nibtowere, living forever. Commander of troops in the highlands, steward in Egypt, commander of [////] on the river, Senekh, says:     I was commander of the troops of this entire land in this highland, equipped with water skins, [baskets], with bread, beer, and every fresh vegetable of the South. I made its valleys green, and its heights pools of water; settled with children throughout, southward in Thau and northward to Menet-Khufu. I went forth to the sea, I hunted adults. I hunted cattle. I went forth to this highland with sixty people of years, and 70 young ones of the children of one (woman). I did all correctly for Nibtowere, living forever. Reign of Mentuhotep IV J.H.Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part One, § 455f New Kingdom Inscription of Ramses IV   This was an attempt to settle along the Coptos-Red Sea road, as the bringing along of children, the planting, and the normal Egyptian diet (bread, beer, vegetables) indicate.   Menet-Khufu: lit. the Nurse of Khufu, capital of the Horizon of Horus, a principality in the region of Benihasan   Thau-Mut: Medinet Habu   sea: The Red Sea     Year 3, second month of the third season (tenth month), day 27, under the majesty of Horus ////////////////     Lo, his majesty took account in his heart like his father Harsiese, and he led the way to the place he desired. He went around the august mountain, in order to make marvelous monuments for his father and his fathers, all the gods and goddesses of Egypt. He set up a stela upon this mountain, engraved with the great name of King Ramses IV, given life like Re.     Lo, his majesty gave command to the scribe of the house of sacred writings, Ramses-eshehab; the scribe of [known possessions], Hori; the prophet of the house of Min-Harsiese in Coptos, Usermare-nakht, to seek the [////] for the "Place of Truth," in the mountain of Bekhen, after //// //// //// //// which were very good, being great and marvelous monuments. White House: The treasury   The House of Usermare-Meriamon: The temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu   Mazoi: Medjay, originally Nubian mercenaries.   The dead: Compared with similar expeditions this one White House: The treasury   The House of Usermare-Meriamon: The temple of Ramses III at Medinet Habu   Mazoi: Medjay, originally Nubian mercenaries.   The dead: Compared with similar expeditions this one was in this respect rather unsuccessful.   his father Harsiese: Horus of Coptos     Then his majesty commanded to commission: The first prophet of Amon, the chief of works, Ramses-nakht, triumphant, to bring them to Egypt. The butlers and nobles who were with him were: The king's butler, Usermare-sekhepersu The butler, Nakhtamon The deputy of the army, Khamtir The overseer of the White House, Khamtir The chief of the quarry-service, mayor, Amonmose, of the city (of Thebes) The chief of the quarry-service, overseer of herds of "The House of Usermare-Meriamon," Bekenkhonsu. The charioteer of the court, Nakhtamon The scribe of the army-lists, Sule The scribe of the deputy of the army, Ramses-nakht Scribes of the army - 20 men Chiefs of the court stables - 20 men The chief of the commandants of the army, Khamale (1 man) Commandants of the infantry - 20 men Charioteers of the chariotry - 50 men Chiefs of prophets, overseers of herds, prophets, scribes, inspectors - 50 men People of the infantry - 5,000 men Officers of the division of the court fishermen - 200 men Eper of the foreigners of Ayan - 800 men People of the [crown possessions] of the house of Pharaoh - 2,000 men A chief deputy - 1 man Mazoi gendarmes - 50 men Chief artificer, Nakhtamon (1 man) Master workmen of the works of the quarrymen - 3 men Quarrymen and stonecutters - 130 men Draughtsmen - 2 men Sculptors - 4 men The dead who are excluded from the list - 900 Total - 8,368       There were transported for them supplies from Egypt in ten carts, there being six yoke of oxen to (each) cart, drawing (them) from Egypt to the mountain of Bekhen. [There were] many colporteurs laden with bread, meat, and cakes, without numbering.     There were also brought the oblations for the satisfaction of the gods of heaven and earth from the Southern City. They were pure with great purity, they were [////] //// //// //// //// commanded the chief [that the priests might] give [////]. Bulls were slaughtered; calves were smitten; incense, it [streamed] to heaven; shedeh and wine, like a flood; beer [overflowed] in this place; the ritual priest, his voice [presented] the pure offering to Min, Horus, Isis, [Amon, Mut, Khonsu] and all the gods of this mountain. Their hearts were glad, they received the oblations, that they might requite with myriads of jubilees, for their beloved son, King Ramses IV, given life forever.  carts: Wheeled vehicles, chariots included, were rarely used in ancient Egypt.   Bekhen: metagreywacke, a grey rock looking like basalt [1]   colporteurs: Men may have been easier to supply than draught animals. Oxen were satisfied with cheap feed which was low-quality but also very bulky, and horses were seemingly too expensive to use for transportation.   Southern City: Thebes       Reign of Ramses IV

ntermediate Period.